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THE  RELATION  OF  WATER  CONTENT  AND 
CONSISTENCY  OF  MIX  TO  THE 
PROPERTIES  OF  CONCRETE 

BY 

REX  LENOI  BROWN 

B.  S.  in  C.  E.  University  of  Kansas,  1919 


THESIS 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the 


Degree  of 

MASTER  OF  SCIENCE 
IN  THEORETICAL  AND  APPLIED  MECHANICS 

IN 

THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


1921 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


I HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAT  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY 

SUPERVISION  BY REX  B.tOJE 

ENTITLED  _THE  RELiTIOM  OF  V/iTER  CORgEET  ilO)  COE3I3TEECY  ___ 

n-p  TO  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  CQlj CRETE. 

BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 


THE  DEGREE  OF  M-VSTER 
MECHANICS 


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TiBLE  OF  COUTEUTS 

I 

Introduction 

page 

1. 

Preliminary 

1 i 

2. 

Scope  of  Investigations 

1 

3. 

iicknowledgments 

1 

II 

i^na lysis  and  Theory 

4. 

Rotation  and  Definitions 

3 

6. 

Theory  of  Design  of  Mixes 

5 

6 • 

Voids-Mortar  Tests 

7 

7. 

Design  of  Concrete  Mixes 

8 

III 

Materials  Used 

8. 

Methods  Used  to  Determine  Properties 

12 

9. 

Materials 

a.  Cement 

14 

b.  Sand 

15 

c.  Gravel 

17 

d.  Y/ater 

17 

IV 

Methods 

H 

o 

• 

Mortar  Tests 

17 

11. 

Concrete  Tests 

20 

a.  Selection  of  Materials 

20 

b.  ’Weighing  out  of  Materials 

20 

c.  Mixing  of  Materials 

21 

d.  plow  Table  Test 

21 

e.  Making  of  Specimens 

22 

f.  Care  and  Storage  of  Specimens 

24 

g.  Testing  of  Specimens 

25 

page 

V Experimental  Data 

12.  Explanations  of  Diagrams  E6 

13.  Explanations  of  Photographs  27 

14.  Mortar  Data  29 

15.  Concrete  Data  42 

VI  Discussion  of  Concretes 

16.  The  Relation  of  Water  Content  to  the  Properties 

of  Concrete  (absolute  amount  of  water,  at  one 
consistency,  used  with  sands  compared  with  the 
accompanying  properties  of  concrete.)  66 

17.  The  Relation  of  Consistency  to  the  Properties 

of  Concrete.  (Relative  amount  of  water  used  in 
different  mixes  of  the  same  sand  compared  with 
the  accompanying  properties  of  the  concrete.)  67 

18.  Discussion  of  the  theory  of  Design  71 

Conclusions  73 

List  of  Curves 

Per  Cent  of  Voids  Pilled  with  Water  74 

Change  in  Strength  with  Variations  in  the 

Water  Cement  Ratio  79 

Relation  ietween  Strength  and  Water  Cement  Ratio  88 

Relation  Between  Strength  and  Cement  Space  Ratio  131 

Photographs  150 


I.  INTRODUCTION 


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1 


1.  Pre liminary  •-  The  design  of  concrete  mixtures  has 
been  more  or  less  a matter  of  approximation*  It  has  not  been 
possible  with  any  given  materials  to  determine  readily  what 
proportions  should  be  used  to  obtain  a concrete  of  predetermined 
strength*  in  order  to  use  the  materials  economically,  it  is 
desirable  to  be  able  to  so  design  concrete  mixtures.  A study 
of  the  properties  of  concrete  has  been  carried  on  for  some  time 
by  the  department  of  Theoretical  and  Applied  Mechanics*  During 
December,  1920,  a new  set  of  tests  was  laid  out,  following  a 
new  method  of  attack,  and  a part  of  the  work  was  assigned  for 
two  theses*  The  relation  of  water  content  and  consis:tency 
of  mix  to  the  properties  of  concrete  will  be  considered  in 
this  thesis*  Mr*  M.  C.  Hichols'  thesis  deals  with  the  relation 
of  fine  aggregate  to  the  properties  of  concrete. 

2*  Scope  of  Investigations*-  This  thesis  deals  with  the 
concretes  made  from  three  artificially  graded  sands.  With  a 
given  sand  the  mix  was  varied  by  changing  the  amounts  of  cement, 
sand,  gravel,  and  water  used*  The  mortar  data  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  ten  natural  sands  are  also  given*  The  data  for  the 
concretes  made  from  these  natural  sands  can  be  found  in  the 
thesis  by  Mr.  M.  C.  Michols  on  "Relation  of  pine  Aggregate  to 
the  Properties  of  Concrete"*  They  were  mixed  with  an  amount 
of  water  which  gave  the  minimum  volume  of  concrete.  The 
natural  sands  had  one  standard  of  water  content* 

3*  Acknowledgments* - The  work  was  carried  on  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  A.  R.  Talbot,  Mr*  P.  E.  Richart  and 


1 


2 


1 


tir,  H.  J.  Grilkey,  both  of  the  Engineering  Experiment  station, 
gave  considerable  time  to  the  work  of  the  investigation.  I»ir. 
M.  C.  Michols,  graduate  student  in  Theoretical  and  Applied 
Mechanics,  worked  on  his  thesis  at  the  same  time. 


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II.  AMLYSIS  iHD  THEORY 


4.  notation  and  Def initions« - 

c = alDsolute  volume  of  cement  per  unit  volume  of 
concrete, 

c*  = absolute  volume  of  cement  in  the  mix  used. 

a = absolute  volume  of  sand  per  unit  volume  of  con- 
crete 

a*  = absolute  volume  of  sand  in  the  mix  used. 

b = absolute  volume  of  coarse  aggregate  per  unit 
volume  of  concrete. 

b'  = absolute  volume  of  coarse  aggregate  in  the  mix 
used, 

V = per  cent  of  voids  in  the  concrete  mix. 

VQj=per  cent  of  voids  in  the  mortar  mix. 

1 - b=  volume  of  mortar  in  concrete. 

3.  + C 

= Volume  of  mortar. 

~ m 

w = absolute  volume  of  water  per  unit  volume  of 
mo 

mortar  at  basic  water  content. 

= absolute  volume  of  water  per  unit  volume  of 
mo rtar. 

w 

= Water  Content  Ratio. 

w 

mo 

Wqx  = absolute  volume  of  water  per  unit  volume  of 
concrete. 

Wq  = absolute  volume  of  water  per  unit  volume  of 

concrete  after  absorption  of  water  by  the  aggre 
gate  has  taken  place 


4 


c 

Wq 


w 


= Water-cement  Ratio  relation. 

■ = Per  cent  of  voids  filled  with  water. 

- = Ratio  of  water  used  in  the  mix  to  the  water  in  the 


w 
mo 

mix  at  basic  v/ater  content.  This  value  was  only  used 
on  the  curves  as  a symbol. 

The  Basic  Water  Content  of  a mortar  is  that  amount  of  water 
which  will  give  the  minimum  voids  in  the  mortar. 

Water  Content  Ratio  is  the  ratio  of  the  volume  of  water 
which  was  used  per  unit  volume  of  mortar  to  tiae  volume  of  water 
per  volume  of  mortar  at  basic  water  content. 

water  Cement  Ratio  is  the  ratio  of  volume  of  water  per 
unit  volume  concrete  to  the  absolute  volume  of  the  cement  per  unit 
volume  of  concrete. 

Cement -Space  Ratio  is  the  ratio  of  the  absolute  volume  of 
the  cement  to  the  sum  of  the  volume  of the  voids  and  the  absolute 
volume  of  the  cement. 


5 


6*  Theory  of  Design  of  Mixe s » « The  method  of  design,  upon 
which  the  work  in  these  theses  is  based,  was  developed  by  Professor 
A*  Talbot,  It  commences  with  a study  of  the  mortar  used  in  the 
concrete.  It  is  assumed  that  the  ratio  of  the  absolute  volume 
of  the  sand  to  the  absolute  volume  of  the  cement  is  some  function 
of  the  voids  in  the  mortar. 


c=  0 (Vm)- 


(1) 


With  the  values  of  sand,  cement,  and  voids  used  in  the  mortar, 
the  properties  of  the  mortar  will  be  known.  The  amount  of  water 
used  will  be  taken  care  of  in  the  voids  since  this  value  will  be 
determined  by  experiment  using  different  amounts  of  water.  The 
volume  of  the  mortar  will  equal  the  sum  of  the  absolute  volumes 
of  sand  and  cement  divided  by  the  density  or 

y = Vol,  of  mortar 

With  the  amounts  of  coarse  aggregate  ordinarily  used  in  concrete, 
the  volume  of  the  concrete  will  equal  the  bulk  of  the  mortar  plus 
the  absolute  volume  of  the  coarse  aggregate  or 

a + c 


r - V 


■+  b = 1 - 


m 


(2) 


also  the  density  will  equal  the  sum  of  absolute  volumes  of  the 
sand,  cement,  and  coarse  aggregate  or 

a+b-*-c  = d--  - - - - - (3) 

The  s trength  o£  the  resulting  concrete  may  be  a function  of  some 
property  of  the  concrete,  then 

S = ^ (v,c,a,b)  ------  (4) 

It  is  seen  that  there  are  seven  unknowns  and  only  four  relations. 


res 


6 


The  two  arbitrary  functions  6 and  i are  determined  by  experiment 
while  the  third  unknown  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  particular  condi- 
tion, it  is  not  unreasonable  to  have  more  unknowns  than  equations 
since  the  strength  of  the  concrete  may  be  a function  of  the  density 
using  the  same  amount  of  cement  or  it  may  be  a function  of  tlie 
cement  using  the  same  density  and  possibly  some  other  relations. 

The  method  given  assumed  that  the  function  ©would  be  determined 
by  experiment  for  the  sand  used.  It  is  undesirable,  however,  to 
determine  the  function  ^ by  experiment  for  a particular  sand  because 
it  would  require  considerable  equipment  and  time.  It  is  possible 
that  such  a function  will  be  found  which  will  apply  to  all  concretes 
It  is  desirable  that  i be  as  simple  a relation  as  possible.  In 
this  thesis  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  show  some  of  these  relations. 

This  method  does  not  consider  directly  the  question  of  workability. 
This  will  undoubtedly  enter  in  the  amounts  of  cement,  coarse 
aggregate,  and  water  used  and  give  one  more  equation  reducing  the 
unknown  to  two.  The  values  obtained  from  the  use  of  the  formulas 
must  be  considered  to  make  sure  that  they  are  reasonable.  The 
absolute  volume  of  the  cement  might  vary  from  ,06  to  ,15  cu.  ft, 
per  cu,  ft,  of  concrete.  The  absolute  volume  of  the  coarse  aggre- 
gate might  have  a value  around  ,50  cu,  ft,  per  cu,  ft,  oL  concrete 
for  a maximum  value,  depending  upon  the  materials  used.  The  more 

t 

workable  mixes  are  obtained  with  the  larger  values  of  cement 
and  smaller  values  of  coarse  material  and  with  wet  mixes.  The 
water  content  to  be  used  will d e pend  upon  the  conditions  of  plac- 
ing the  concrete  and  is  independent  of  the  computations  of  the 
quantities  in  the  mix  if  the  mortar  curve  for  this  water  content 


7 


is  used  in  the  calculations. 

6.  Yoids-Mortar  Tests.-  In  order  to  find  the  properties 

of  a mortar  used  in  a concrete  mix  it  is  necessary  to  make  a test 

with  the  mortar.  Knowing  the  voids  in  the  mortar  with  different 

amounts  of  cement  and  water  will  determine  the  properties  which  are 

desired.  To  make  up  a mortar  a value  was  assumed  for  fa  + c)  and 

— which  determined  the  amount  of  sand  and  cement  to  use.  To  get 
c 

the  v/eights  of  the  sand  and  cement  to  use,  the  specific  gravity 

of  the  sand  and  cement  must  be  known.  To  get  the  bulk  volume  of 

the  materials  the  weights  per  unit  volume  would  have  to  be  known. 

por  this  thesis  the  proportioning  was  done  by  v/eights.  Generally 

a + c was  taken  as  200  cubic  centimeters  and  ~ as  1,  2,  3 1/2, 

c 

and  6.  With  a given  mix  the  water  v/as  varied  so  that  the  mortar 
varied  from  a very  dry  mix  to  a very  wet  one.  Prom  these  data 
curves  are  plotted  showing  the  relation  between  the  voids  and 
water  in  the  mortar.  The  function  4 is  also  determined  by  experiment 
but  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  a function  that  will  apply  to  all 
concretes.  The  function  is  determined  by  plotting  past  tests  and 
using  the  function  which  actually  fits  all  of  the  cases.  This 
value  is  the  only  one  to  be  questioned  in  the  method  of  design  since 
the  success  of  the  method  depends  upon  the  closeness  with  which  this 
function  is  determined,  ^s  stated  before  one  of  the  objects  of  this 
thesis  is  to  check  up  on  this  relation  so  it  was  not  used  in  the  de- 
signing of  the  mixes.  In  its  place  one  of  the  other  unknowns  had  to 
be  arbitrarily  fixed.  The  method  that  follows  was  used  to  design 
the  mixtures. 


8 


7.  Design  of  Concrete  Mixes* - In  designing  the  mixes  to 

he  used  it  was  thought  best  to  assume  a value  for  b and  c and  to 

compute  the  amount  of  sand  necessary.  . The  method  used  to  do  this 

was  devised  by  Mr.  Uichols  and  Mr.  Riehart.  From  the  mortar 

voids  data,  curves  were  plotted  for  the  bulk  of  the  mortar  with 

the  values  of  c to  be  used  in  the  concrete,  against ^values  of 

— • The  values  of  cement  (c)  used  were  .06,  .10,  and  .15.  Since 
c 

b equals  one  minus  the  bulk  volume  of  mortar,  this  graph  gave  an 

easy  method  for  determining  the  ^ necessary  and  'from  that  the 

value  of  a to  be  used.  On  this  same  sheet  was  plotted  the  weight 

of  water, at  the  basic  water  content,  per  cu.  ft.  of  mortar  against 

the  values  of  — . This  value  was  taken  from  the  void  mortar  curves 
c 

Absorption  by  the  aggregate  was  not  allowed  for  in  this  curve. 

For  an  example  a mix  which  was  used  will  be  given,  which  will 

show  the  method  of  design.  Figure  1 was  plotted  from  the  mortar 

data  for  the  sand  used.  Figure  2 was  obtained  from  Figure  1. 

Figure  3 was  obtained  from  Figure  2.  The  water  curve,  for  basic 

water  content,  in  Figure  3 was  obtained  from  Figure  1. 

Given  sand  Mo. 4,  design  a mix  for  c = .15  and  b » .35  at  basic 

water  content.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  sand  is  2.63  and  the 

absorption  0.16  per  cent  by  weight.  The  coarse  aggregate  is  the 

same  as  that  used  in  this  thesis.  From  Figure  3'  for  c = .15  and 

b = .35,  it  is  found  necessary  to  use  an  £ of  2.1  which  gives 

c 

for  a,  C.315.  The  volume  of  the  mold  used  was  about  l/5  of  a 
cubic  foot.  All  mixes  at  basic  water  content  were  designed  to 
make  2/9  of  a cubic  foot  of  concrete.  The  weight  of  the  materials 
to  use  were  determined  from  the  equation 


-H*. 

! j 

' r ^ 

11 


2 

w = sp.gr.  X 6E.4  x ^ x (a,  b,  or  e) 
which  gives  the  following  weights: 

Cement  = 6.45  pounds 
Sand  s 11.50  ” 

Gravel  = 13.15  ” 

Prom  the  water  curve,  it  is  found  that  the  mortar  requires 
14.7  pounds  of  water  per  cu.  ft.  of  mortar.  The  mortar  in 
this  mix  would  then  require 

2 

Water  = 14.7  x 0.65  x = 2*12  pounds, 
iibsorption  of  water  by  the  sand  will  require  0.02  pounds  and 
by  the  coarse  aggregate  0.13  pounds  making  the  total  amount 
of  water  necessary  to  use  2.27  pounds. 

it  is  important  to  note  that  the  water  contents  above 
the  basic  water  content  as  used  in  this  thesis  were  not  used 
as  explained  in  the  theory  of  design.  Instead,  120,  140,  and  160 
per  cent  of  the  water  required  by  the  mortar  v/ere  added  to  the 
mix  as  figured  for  the  basic  water  content.  The  absorption  of 
the  fine  and  coarse  aggregate  was  added  to  this  quantity  to  get 
the  total  amount  of  water  required.  By  adding  water  in  this 
manner,  the  quantities  of  materials  in  a unit  volume  of  concrete 
were  not  known,  but  from  the  amount  of  v/ater  added,  the  volume 
of  the  resulting  mix  and  the  quantities  of  material  in  it  could 


be  determined 


Ill 


MATERUL3 


12 


8*  Methods  Used  to  Determine  Properties* - Before  giving 
the  properties  of  the  materials  used,  the  method  of  determining 
these  properties  will  be  described  as  follows; 

a.  7/eight  per  cubic  foot 

b.  Sieve  Analysis 

c.  Specific  gravity 

d.  Absorption 

a.  ffe ight  per  Cubic  Foot. - The  weight  per  cubic  foot  was 
obtained  by  filling  a steel  mold  of  known  volume  and  weighing 
its  contents.  The  mold  was  approximately  8 3/I6  inches  in 
diameter  and  6 9/I6  inches  high.  The  volume  of  the  mold  deter- 
mined from  careful  measurements  was  .202  cu.  ft.  The  mold  was 
filled  in  three  layers.  Each  layer  was  tamped  in  with  about 
thirty  strokes  of  a wooden  tamp  about  one  and  one-half  inches 
square.  This  value  was  not  used  in  any  calculations.  It  is 
given  only  as  information  on  the  sand. 

The  value  given  is  the  average  of  three  trials. 

b.  Sieve  Ana lysis. - Before  making  the  sieve  analysis 
of  the  natural  sands,  the  material  v;as  placed  in  an  oven  for 
one  day  where  the  temperature  was  212  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The 
material  for  the  artificially  graded  sands  was  placed  on  the 
steam  racks  for  a day  before  separating. 

The  material  for  the  three  artificially  graded  sands  was 
separated  into  desired  sizes  with  a Combs  Gyratory  Riddle  which 
used  eighteen  inch  screens.  The  material  was  then  remixed  in  the 
desired  proportions.  The  mechanical  analysis  of  the  natural  sands 


13 


was  made  on  a Ro-Tap  macliine  using  eight  inch  screens.  The  sample 
of  500  grams  was  placed  in  the  machine  and  run  for  fifteen  minutes 
The  sample  was  then  weighed  up.  The  sieve  analysis  of  the  arti- 
ficially graded  sands  was  also  run  in  thismanner.  The  values 
given  in  the  table  are  these  values  rather  than  the  ones  from 
which  the  mix  was  made  up.  This  put  the  natural  and  artificially 
graded  sands  on  the  same  basis.  The  sample  of  the  natural  sands 
was  taken  at  the  time  the  sand  was  remixed.  A sampler  was  used. 

c.  Specific  Gravity. - The  Le  Chatelier  flask  was  used 
to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  the  sands.  The  standard 
method  of  procedure  as  given  by  the  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials  for  testing  cement  was  followed  except  that  water  was 
substituted  for  kerosene  and  a 54  gram  sample  was  used. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  coarse  aggregate  was  determined 
from  the  formula 

<3  _ w d 

(wd  + a)  » w 

in  which 

S = apparent  specific  gravity 
wd=  dry  weight  of  stone  in  air 
w a weight  of  stone  suspended  in  water, 
a = total  weight  of  water  absorbed. 

A sample  of  about  2 l/s  kilograms  dried  to  a constant  weight  was 
used.  A wire  bucket  and  metric  scales  which  are  a part  of  the 
regular  equipment  of  the  laboratory  were  used. 

The  specific  gravity  given  in  the  table  is  the  result  of  at 


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14 


least  three  trials. 

Absorption. - The  test  for  absorption  as  given  in  the 
preprint  for  "Recoiomended  Practice  for  Making  Compression  Tests 
of  Concrete”  by  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  was 
followed.  This  preprint  was  published  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  Committee  Reports, 
19E0,  p.  E94  as  ’’Outline  of  Compression  Test  of  Concrete  for 
Investigation  of  Properties  of  Concrete  Mixtures." 

The  values  given  are  the  average  of  at  least  three  trials 
and  are  by  weight. 

9.  Materials. - 

a.  Cement. - Universal  Portland  Cement  was  used.  The 
department  had  had  this  cement  for  4 i/e  years.  Before  using 
it  was  screened  over  a Ho.  E8  screen.  It  had  a specific  gravi 
ty  of  3.10  and  weighed  94  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  cement 
was  tested  by  the  Department  of  Highway  Engineering.  The  tests 
of  the  concrete  cylinders  also  showed  good  strength  as  compared 
v/ith  the  series  EG  of  1919  so  there  was  no  reason  to  question 
the  quality  of  the  cement. 

The  results  of  the  tension  tests  of  1:3  mortar  by  weight 
using  standard  Ottawa  sand,  are  given  below.  The  values  given 
are  the  average  of  three  tests  made  from  four  samples. 


7 day 

E8  day 

170 

E70 

155 

E85 

160 

S60 

E15 

315 

Average  strength  175 

E8E 

15 


The  cement  passed  the  soundness  test  • The  per  cent  of  water  at 
normal  consistency  was  24. 

h.  Sand. - The  colormetric  test  was  made  on  all  the  sands 
used  and  they  were  found  to  pass  satisfactorily  with  nearly 

clear  solution. 

For  the  three  artificially  graded  sands,  Attica  sand  which  the 
department  had  on  hand  was  used.  They  were  made  up  in  batches  of 
three  hundred  pounds  each.  Each  batch  was  mixed  in  a large  pan 

and  turned  with  shovels  till  it  was  of  a uniform  mixture.  It 

was  then  placed  in  a can  for  use.  The  properties  of  the  Attica 

sands  are  given  in  a table,  (see  page  18) 

The  natural  sands  used  were  sent  to  the  department  by  Professor 
D.  A.  Abrams  of  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago.  Twenty-two  sands  were 
received.  Ten  of  them  are  described  and  the  mortar  tests  given 
in  this  thesis.  The  others  may  be  found  in  the  thesis  on,  "The 
Relation  of  Pine  Aggregate  to  the  Properties  of  Concrete”,  by 
M.  C.  Richols.  As  received  sand  Ro.  9 contained  considerable 
coarse  material.  To  make  this  sand  comparable  v/ith  the  other  sands 
it  was  screened  over  a Ro.  4 screen.  The  material  retained  on 
this  screen  was  not  used. 

Sand  Ho.  4 came  from  the  Eaw  River  at  Kansas  City. 

It  is  mostly  quartz  with  a little  granite.  It  does  not 
glisten,  is  dull  yellow  in  color,  and  the  particles  are 
very  uniformly  round. 


rriseiM 


16 


Sand  no.  9 is  limestone  screenings  from  Chicago, 
Illinois.  It  is  nearly  white  in  color.  The  particles 
are  very  angular.  94  per  cent  of  this  sand  passed 
the  Eo.  4 screen  and  was  retained  on  the  Eo.  8 screen. 

Sand  Ko.  10  is  a Dune  sand  from  Gary,  Indiana. 

The  main  part  is  quartz,  a little  granite,  some  signs 
of  vegetation,  and  a fine  black  substance.  It  glistens 
in  the  sim  and  is  ordinary  sand  color. 

Sand  Do.  IE  is  a crushed  granite  from  Berlin,  Wiscon- 
sin. It  is  dark  red.  The  larger  particles  are  very 
angular  and  rough.  The  finer  particles  are  whiter  and 
resemble  dust. 

Sand  Do.  13  is  Platte  River  gravel  from  Fremont, 
Debraska.  The  sand  is  nearly  all  quartz  . The  gravel 
is  a granite.  It  is  dull  grey  in  color.  The  larger 
particles  are  very  angular  while  the  small  ones  are 
nearly  round. 

Sand  Dio.  14  is  a glass  sand  from  Mapleton,  Pennsyl- 
vania. It  is  nearly  white  in  color.  The  particles 
are  round  but  the  surf aces  seemed  to  be  rough. 

Sand  Do.  15  is  a slag  from  Lorain,  Ohio.  The 
particles  are  very  angular  and  porous.  It  is  light 
grey  in  color. 

Sand  Do.  17  is  a sea  sand  from  iitlantic  City,  Dew  Jersey 


17 


The  major  part  Is  a quartz.  There  is  also  some  granite 
a Quantity 

and^ considerable^ of  a fine  black  powder.  It  glistens 
in  the  sun. 

Sand  Eo.  20  came  from  Elgin,  Illinois.  It  is 
trap  rock  with  fairly  round  grains.  It  is  washed.  The 
color  is  dull  yellow. 

Sand  Eo.  22  is  the  s^me  as  sand  Eo.  20  except, 
that  it  is  not  washed.  This  sand  contained  enough  clay 
to  make  it  very  visible . 

c.  Grravel. - The  gravel  used  came  from  ittica,  Indiana 
and  had  been  in  the  laboratory  for  some  time.  It  was  screened 
out  into  sizes  ordinarily  kept  on  hand  in  the  concrete  labora- 
tory. It  was  remixed  in  the  ratio  of  60  per  cent  of  s/s  to 
3/4  in.  and  40  per  cent  of  s/4  to  1 inch  size.  The  mixed 
material  as  used  had  a specific  gravity  of  2.71,  voids  of  39.3 
per  cent  and  weighed  102.5  pounds  per  cu.  ft.  The  absorption 
was  1.0  per  cent  by  weight. 

d.  Water.-  Tap  water  from  the  University  water  supply 
was  used.  There  was  no  reason  to  question  the  use  of  this 
water  for  making  concrete. 

10.  Mortar  Tests.-  These  tests  followed  the  method 
explained  in  the  Jinalysis  and  Theory.  The  details  of  the 
methods  of  making  the  tests  are  given  in  the  thesis  on,  ’’The 
Relation  of  the  pine  iiggregate  to  the  Properties  of  Concrete” 
by  M.  C.Eichols. 


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18 

PROPEHTISS  OP  3Am  USED 


Ro.  Abrams  Sand  Location  Properties 


1st  no. 

Wt  .per 
cu.f £. 

opea 

Gra'^s 

Abso]:p 

tion 

4 

3785 

River  Sand 

Kaw  River  K.C,  Mo. 

109.5 

2.63 

0.16 

9 

3967 

Limestone  Screenings 

Chicago,  Illinois 

96.9 

2.77 

0.16 

10 

4014 

Dune  Sand 

Gary,  Indiana 

101.1 

2.68 

0.80 

1£ 

4081 

Crushed  Granite 

Berlin,  Wisconsin 

114.1 

2.61 

0.20 

13 

4147 

Platte  River  Gravel 

Fremont,  nebraska 

121.0 

2 . 63 

0.10 

14 

4189 

Glass  Sand 

Mapleton,  Pa. 

95.1 

2.64 

a 40 

15 

4238 

Slag 

Lorain,  Ohio 

91.3 

2.64 

0.94 

17 

4598 

Sea  Sand 

Atlantic  City,  n.J 

.107.4 

£..75 

0.84 

20 

5067 

Sand  Washed 

Elgin,  Illinois 

114.0 

2;.72 

0.52 

22 

5198 

Sand  Unwashed 

Elgin,  Illinois 

116.0 

2.72 

0.36 

26 

neat  Cement 

94.0 

3.10 

31 

Artificial  Grading 

iixi/ica , Indiana 

116.7 

2.69 

1.12 

32 

Artificial  Grading 

Attica,  Indiana 

108.5 

2.69 

1.12 

36 

Artificial  Grading 

Attica,  Indiana 

103.7 

2.69 

1.  32 




SIEVE  ^MLYSIS 

PER  CERT  S3  IRC-  SIS^'/E  RUIffiER 


Ro.  200  160  100  48  28  14  8 4 3/8" 


4 

0.3 

3.3 

39.5 

75.4 

91.3 

98.3 

9 

2.6 

2.9 

3.2 

3.3 

6.8 

100 

10 

0.3 

0.5 

6.1 

94.6 

99.6 

100 

12 

14.8 

20.9 

28.0 

39.1 

60.9 

95.8 

13 

2.7 

18.7 

41.6 

56.8 

70.9 

87.9 

14 

0.5 

0.7 

2.6 

31.8 

93.2 

99.1 

15 

8.6 

15.0 

24.4 

34.4 

64.7 

92.7 

17 

0.2 

2.2 

9.3 

95.0 

20 

1.5 

11.6 

50.6 

71.1 

85.7 

98.3 

22 

1.4 

6.5 

36.7 

57.4 

92.6 

94.7 

26 

31 

3.3 

14.2 

28.9 

55.0 

77.8 

99.0 

32 

2.7 

3.5 

6.6 

42.8 

77.7 

99.1 

36 

0 

0 

0.4 

0.6 

2.9 

63.0 

87.8 

100 

Tyler  Standard  Sieves  Used. 


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20 


11,  Concrete, - The  party  making  the  eoncre;te  specimens 
had  never  less  than  five  men.  The  division  of  labor  was  as 
follows,  one  man  recording, two  men  mixing,  one  man  weighing  out 
materials,  and  one  man  keeping  pans,  flow  table,  and  tables 
clean. 

a.  Selection  of  Materials,-  The  artificially  graded  sands 
were  made  up  and  stored  in  cans.  The  sand  was  taken  out  as 
needed  with  a hand  scoop.  This  method  seemed  to  give  a fair 
sample.  The  two  sacks  of  each  natural  sand  v/ere  emptied  into 

a large  pan  and  thoroughly  mixed.  They  were  then  resacked  until 
used.  When  using  a sand,  a bucket  was  filled  with  the  sand  and 
it  was  weighed  out  from  the  bucket  as  needed. 

The  cement  was  screened  and  then  stored  in  large  cans  from 
which  it  was  taken  to  make  the  mixes. 

The  coarse  aggregate  was  separated  and  stored  in  large  cans. 
The  quantities  for  the  mix  were  taken  from  these  cans.  This 
seemed  better  than  to  mix  up  the  materials  in  large  batches 
because  of  the  possibility  of  separation  of  the  material  of 
different  sizes, 

b.  Weighing  out  of  Materials, - Each  mix  had  its  own 
data  sheet.  Prom  this  sheet,  a card  was  made  out  giving  the 
weights  of  the  various  materials  used  in  the  mix.  This  card  was 
kept  with  the  data  sheet  which  reduced  the  chances  of  error  in 
getting  the  wrong  weights  in  the  mix.  One  man  did  nothing  but 
weigh  out  materials.  The  cement  was  weighed  out  first,  then 
the  sum  of  the  cement  plus  the  sand  was  set  off  and  the  sand 
added.  This  was  then  placed  in  the  dry  pan.  next  the  coarse 


El 


material  was  weighed  out,  the  amount  of  3/8  inch  to  s/4  inch 
first  and  then  the  3/4  inch  to  1 inch  added  to  it.  This  v/as 
placed  in  the  dry  pan  with  the  sand  and  cement  and  thoroughly 
mixed. 

c.  Mixing  of  Ifeterials. --  Before  placing  the  materials  in  the 
wet  pan,  the  pan  was  dampened  with  a wet  cloth.  Uo  faee  water 

was  left  in  the  pan.  The  dry  materials  were  then  emptied  into 
the  wet  pan  and  so  arranged  as  to  form  a hollow  place  in  the  cents:. 
The  predetermined  amount  of  water  was  added  to  the  mix.  A large 
burette,  calibrated  in  pounds  was  used  to  measure  out  the  water. 

A tube  was  attached  to  it  so  that  the  water  could  be  run  into 
the  hollow  place  found  in  the  pile  of  the  materials.  The  recorders 
attempted  to  check  the  reading  of  the  water  admitted  each  time 
in  order  to  eliminate  error.  The  dry  material  was  worked  in 
until  the  water  was  taken  up.  The  batch  was  then  mixed  until  it 
was  a uniform  mixture  throughout.  This  generally  required  from 
one  to  three  minutes  depending  upon  the  amount  of  water  used  and 
the  particular  materials. 

d.  plow  Table  Test. - After  the  batch  was  mixed,  it  was 
placed  on  the  flow  table  for  the  flow  table  test.  This  test  is 
the  one  developed  by  Mr.  G.  M.  Williams  while  he  was  with  the 
Bureau  of  Standards.  The  mold  used  was  eleven  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  bottom  and  six  inches  at  the  top.  Its  height  was 
about  six  inches.  The  height  was  used  which  gave  a volume  of 
0.200  cu.  ft.  The  concrete  was  placed  in  the  mold  with  a small 
hand  scoop  and  tamped  in  with  a one  and  one-half  inch  square  wooden 
tamp.  The  concrete  was  worked  into  the  mold  as  well  as  possible, 


22 


but  due  to  the  shape  of  the  mold  there  ’werealways  more  air  voids 
than  would  be  found  in  the  cylinder  made  of  the  same  mix.  This 
undoubtedly  affected  the  flow  but  it  entered  into  all  mixes  so 
that  the  results  might  be  used  for  comparison  without  serious 
error.  The  mold  was  removed  and  the  table  given  fifteen  one -half 
inch  drops.  The  time  required  to  give  the  fifteen  drops  varied 
from  eight  to  twelve  seconds.  The  increase  in  diameter  of  the 
mass  at  the  base  was  measured  in  two  or  three  directions  depend- 
ing upon  the  condition  of  the  concrete  after  the  drops.  The 
loose  rocks,  which  fell  down  on  the  table  from  the  top  of  the 
mold,  were  removed  and  the  diameter  measured  to  the  edge  of  the 
mortar.  In  some  cases  where  the  mix  was  very  wet  it  was  not 
placed  on  the  flow  table.  In  other  cases  of  wet  mixes  it  was 
placed  on  the  flow  table  but  was  given  ten  drops  instead  of  fif- 
teen. This  data  is  not  reported  in  this  thesis.  The  original 
data  is  fil  ed  in  the  permanent  records  of  the  department. 

The  flow  table  and  method  used  was  similar  to  that  described 
by  Gr.  M.  Williams  in  Engineering  Hews -Re  cord,  June  12,  1919, 
page  1143. 

Making  of  Specimens. - i^fter  taking  the  material  off 
the  flow  table  it  was  remixed  and  placed  in  a 6 x 12  inch  cylinder 
mold.  The  molds  used  were  those  in  the  concrete  laboratory.  The 
mold  number,  the  diameter,  height,  and  volume  of  the  mold  were 
painted  on  the  molds.  The  record  of  the  cylinders  was  kept  by 

means  of  these  data  until  the  cylinder  number  could  be  painted 
on  the  cylinder,  which  was  done  when  the  mold  was  removed.  This 


23 


record  was  also  used  to  get  the  cylinders  out  for  testing.  The 
mold  together  with  its  base  plate  were  weighed  before  it  was  filled. 
A three  to  four  inch  layer  of  concrete  was  placed  in  the  mold  and 
rodded  with  a one-half  inch  pointed  steel  rod  about  thirty  times. 

The  outside  of  the  mold  was  then  pounded  with  a wooden  mallet  till 
water  flushed  to  the  surface  of  the  contents.  Another  layer  was 
then  added  and  the  same  process  repeated.  The  amount  of  labor 
required  to  fill  the  mold  varied  considerably.  In  a few  cases 
with  a dry  mix,  a large  amount  of  coarse  aggregate,  and  a small 
amount  of  cement  it  took  about  thirty  minutes  to  fill  the  mold. 
Ordinarily  it  took  from  four  to  eight  minutes  to  fill  the  mold. 

7/hen  it  was  filled,  the  top  of  the  concrete  was  smoothed  up  v/ith  a 
trowel  in  order  to  make  the  volume  of  the  concrete  as  nearly  equal 
to  the  volume  of  the  mold  as  possible.  The  reason  for  this  care 
was  that  the  volume  of  the  concrete  was  used  in  later  calculations. 
Mortar  on  the  outside  of  the  mold  was  then  cleaned  off  and  the  fill- 
ed  mold  weighed.  The  difference  between  the  weights  of  the  empty 
mold  and  the  filled  one  gave  the  weight  of  the  concrete  in  the  mold. 
Two  workmen,  Mr.  Slade  and  Mr.  Kirby,  made  all  of  these  cylinders. 

In  a few  cases  the  batch  was  so  hard  to  place  that  both  men  worked 
on  one  cylinder,  hammering  the  sides  of  the  mold  and  rodding  the 
concrete.  Both  men  had  a little  experience  in  the  laboratory  making 
test  specimens  before  starting  on  this  series.  The  closeness  with 
which  the  companion  cylinders  checked  out  seemed  to  indicate  that 
their  work  was  entirely  satisfactory. 


24 


f.  Care  and  Storage  of  Specimens*-  After  the  filled  mold 

was  weighed,  it  was  placed  on  a table  for  the  concrete  to  harden. 

At  the  end  of  the  day  on  which  the  cylinders  were  made,  a neat 

cement  cap  was  placed  on  each  of  them  to  insure  a uniform  hearing 

surface  in  the  testing  machine.  The  cylinder  was  capped  hy  placing 

just  stiff  enough  to  stand  up 

a small  amount  of  neat  cement  paste,  made^ under  its  own  weight, 
on  top  of  the  cylinder.  This  cement  paste  was  then  covered  with  a 
piece  of  waxed  paper.  A pie  ce  of  plate  glass  was  placed  on  this 
and  forced  down  on  the  mortar  till  the  glass  was  bearing  uniformly 
over  the  surface  of  the  cylinder.  The  cylinders  were  allowed  to 
set  for  at  least  a couple  of  hours  before  the  cap  was  put  on  in 
order  that  the  cylinder  would  not  shrink:  up  and  break  off  the  cap. 
The  next  morning,  before  the  mold  was  removed,  the  cylinder 
numbers  which  were  obtained  from  the  mold  numbers  were  painted  on 
top  of  the  cylinder.  The  molds  were  removed  with  as  much  care  as 
possible.  Only  a few  cylinders  were  broken  in  handling.  A few  of 
the  cylinders,  which  were  made  at  the  end  of  the  run  on  the  pre- 
ceding day,  were  usually  left  until  later  in  the  day  before  remov- 
ing the  mold,  in  order  that  they  might  have  more  time  to  harden. 
After  the  molds  were  removed,  the  number  of  the  cylinder  was  paint- 
ed on  the  side  of  the  cylinder  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  cylindo: 
would  not  be  lost  in  case  the  cap  was  accidentally  knocked  off. 

The  cylinders  were  then  placed  in  the  dannp  room.  The  tempera- 
ture in  the  room  was  nearly  constant  at  about  seventy  degrees.  The 

100 

humidity  gage  showed  a humidity  o:^all  of  the  time.  The  cylinders 
were  set  on  the  floor  of  the  room.  There  was  no  covering.  No 


water  was  allowed  to  drip  or  run  on  the  specimens.  Moisture 
collected  on  the  cylinders,  however,  iiccompanying  photographs 
will  show  views  of  the  cylinders  in  the  damp  room. 

S*  Testing  of  Specimens. - The  cylinder,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven  days,  was  removed  from  the  damp  room  to  the  main 
laboratory  where  it  was  allowed  to  dry  out  for  one  day  before 
being  tested.  The  cylinder  was  weighed  and  its  diameter  and 
height  measured  before  it  was  tested  at  twenty-eight  days  of 
age.  The  300,000  pound  Olsen  machine  in  the  concrete  labora- 
tory was  used  for  this  purpose.  The  cylinder  was  set  on  a 
machined  cast  iron  bearing  block.  The  extensometer  was  then 
placed  in  position  on  the  cylinder.  Another  bearing  plate 
was  placed  on  top  of  the  cylinder.  A spherical  bearing  block 
was  placed  on  this  plate  and  the  specimen  slid  into  position 
in  the  machine.  All  possible  care  was  used  in  placing  the 

specimen  in  the  machine.  A crosshead  speed  of  1/2  inch  per 
minute  was  used  for  the  testing.  The  semi -autographic  stress 
strain  recorder  was  used.  The  maximum  load  was  determined  by 
the  drop  of  the  beam. 

The  gage  length  of  the  extensometer  used  was  six  ^nches. 
The  stress  strain  curves  are  filed  with  the  original  data. 


26 

IE.  Explanation  of  Diagrams . - 

Mortar  Data. -•  This  data  is  given  by  curves  which  were 
plotted  from  the  original  data.  The  following  notation  was 
used. 

V-jj^  = voids  in  the  mortar 

c = absolute  volume  of  cement  per  unit  voluiifie  of  mortar. 

~ — = cement-space  ratio  for  mortar, 
v+c 

volume  of  water  per  unit  volume  of  mortar. 

All  of  the  above  quantities  are  plotted  for  basic  water  content 
The  amount  of  water  absorbed  by  the  sand  has  been  sub  tracted 

3. 

from  the  amount  given  in  the  — curves.  As  the  curves  was 

e mo 

obtained  from  these  curves  the  absorption  of  v/ater  by  the  sand 

and  not  included  in  the  curve.  The  absorption  for  each  sand 

is  given  in  a table  with  the  description  of  the  sands. 

Concrete  Data.-  The  concrete  data  is  given  under  the 

sand  number  of  which  the  concrete  was  made.  In  some  cases  where 

it  was  evident  that  there  had  been  a mistake  made  in  weighing 

out  the  mix  the  results  of  that  cylinder  were  omitted  from  this 

table.  A few  cylinders  were  accidently  broken  in  handling.  The 

measured  quantities  of  materials  in  these  cylinders  v/ere  omitted 

cent 

also.  Diagrams  showing  per^of  voids  filled  with  water  at  various 
water  content  ratios.  These  data  were  plotted  from  the  average 
values  of  the  concrete  data.  The  per  cent  of  voids  filled  with 
water  was  obtained  from  the  column  headed  . The  water  con- 

V 

tent  ratio,  , 


E7 


Diagram  showing  Change  in  Strength  with  Variations  in  the 
Water  Content  Ratios. - The  average  value  of  the  cylinders  made 
at  basic  water  content  was  taken  as  the  maximum  strength.  Where 
there  were  no  cylinders  made  at  the  basic  water  content  the 
average  of  the  cylinders  with  the  lowest  water  content  ratio  was 
taken  as  the  maximum  value.  This  spread  the  curves  out  and  also 
changed  the  slope  of  that  set.  It  was  thought  best  to  plot  them  in 
this  way  rather  than  assume  a value  for  the  strength  of  the 
concrete  at  basic  water  content. 

Diagram  showing  the  Relation  between  Strength  and  the  Water 
cement  Ratio. - This  relation  was  plotted  for  all  the  concretes  mads 
of  natural  sands  and  those  made  with  artificially  graded  sands. 

The  concretes  are  referred  to  by  the  sand  number  of  which  the 
concrete  was  made. 

Diagrams  showing  the  Relation  Be tween  Strength  and  Cement- 
Space  Ratio. - One  diagram  was  plotted  showing  the  average  results 
of  all  the  concretes  made  from  natural  sands  and  the  concretes 
made  from  the  artificially  graded  sands  at  basic  water  content. 

The  other  diagrams  give  the  average  results  ofthe  concretes  made 
from  the  three  artif icic-lly  graded  sands  Ro.  31,  32  and  36. 

13.  Explanation  of  Photographs. - The  photographs  are  self 
explanatory  except  possibly  in  the  case  of  the  photographs  of  the 
sands.  With  each  natural  sand  there  is  a sand  called  an  artificial 
sand.  This  sand  was  made  of  iittica  sand  to  the  same  grading  as  the 
natural  sand.  This  artifical  sand  was  used  to  compare  the  strength 
of  the  various  sands.  This  set  of  tests  were  called  adhesion 


28 

tests.  These  tests  were  made  as  a part  of  this  investigation 
hut  are  not  reported  in  this  thesis. 

On  the  diagram  for  cement-sapce  ratio  and  water-cement 

ratio  the  expression  was  used  in  the  symbols.  The  expression 

^mo 

is  the  ratio  of  the  water  used  in  the  mix  to  the  water  in  the 
mix  at  basic  water  content  and  does  not  refer  to  water  per  cu. 
ft.  of  concrete.  The  actual  water  content  ratio  varied  so  it 
could  not  be  used  as  a symbol.  The  water  content  ratio  can  be 
found  from  the  concrete  data. 


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VI.  Discussion  OF  COnCREIES 


“= ^ 

16.  Water  Content. - The  water  at  basic  water  content  required 

by  different  sands  is  not  the  same.  In  the  same  sand  it  varies 

with  the  ratio  -q.  The  water  required  at  basic  water  content,  by 

the  sands  used  in  tais  set  of  tests  is  shown  by  a cui*ve  on  the 

diagram  which  gives  the  voids-mortar  data.  Part  of  these  data 

are  in  the  thesis  by  Mr.  M.  G.  Hichols . These  water  content 

curves  for  the  various  sands  have  the  same  general  shape.  They 

differ  in  the  low  values  of  c or  the  high  values  of  a some  of  them 

c ' 

sloping  up  and  others  down,  iit  the  high  values  of  a the  point  at 

c 

which  minimum  volume  in  the  mortar  occurs  is  very  hard  to  determine 
with  accuracy.  The  volume  of  the  mortar  does  not  change  much  with 
addit  ional  water.  In  sands  in  which  the  amount  of  water  at  large 
values  of  ^ is  herd  to  determine,  the  voids  in  the  mortar  are 
large  and  they  do  not  become  filled  v/ith  water  until  the  water 
content  ratio  is  very  high.  A comparison  of  the  mortar  curves 
shows  that  the  water  curve  is  very  similar  in  shape  to  the  voids 
curve.  In  the  fine  sand  the  voids  are  not  so  nearly  filled  with 
water  as  they  are  in  the  coarse  sand.  This  tends  to  make  the 
amount  of  water  required  by  the  two  sands  more  nearly  equal  than 
the  voids  would  indicate. 

The  effect  of  this  difference  in  amount  of  water  on  the 
strength  of  the  concrete  can  be  shown  either  on  the  cement-space 
ratio  curves  or  the  water-cement  ratio  curves.  The  cement-space 
ratio  curves  for  the  m tural  sands  are  in  Mr.  llichols'  thesis.  The 
v/ater-cement  ratio  for  the  natural  sands  are  in  this  thesis. 

The  water-cementratio  will  be  used  in  the  discussion  of  the 
effect  of  water.  If  two  sands  are  used  in  the  making  of  concretes, 
one  fine  and  one  coarse,  the  ratio  of  the  fine  aggregate  to  the 


67 


coarse  aggregate  ‘being  the  same  in  the  two  cases,  and  also 
the  cement  content,  then  that  made  with  the  fine  sand  will  re- 
quire more  water  per  unit  volume  of  concrete  than  the  other 
and  its  strength  will  decrease  an  amount  indicated  by  the  water- 
cement  ratio  curve.  The  decrease  would  be  the  greatest  with 
higher  values  of  cement  and  the  least  with  the  lower  values  of 
cement  as  is  seen  from  the  curve.  If  less  water  is  used  with 
the  fine  sand,  the  strength  values  will  fall  off  of  the  curve 
and  will  not  show  the  increase  expected  from  the  curve.  The 
same  thing  can  be  shown  from  the  cement -space  ratio  curve,  in 
this  case,  however,  in  the  fine  sand  when  not  enough  water  is 
used,  the  strength  is  still  indicated  by  the  curve,  although  the 
position  on  the  curve  may  be  changed.  On  this  account  the 
cement-space  ratio  appears  to  give  a closer  relation  with  the 
strength  than  the  water  cement  ratio. 

No  data  were  taken  to  show  whether  the  basic  water  content 
the 

gave/^ maximum  strength.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  maximum 
strength  comes  at  a somewhat  smaller  water  content  ratio.  The 
point  of  minimum  volume  is  easy  to  determine  and  possible  to 
duplicate,  which  gives  it  a great  advantage  as  a point  of  reference 
17,  Consistency  of  Mix, - The  concrete  of  a given  mix  which 
has  that  amount  of  water  that  produces  the  maximum  strength  is 
generally  a stiff  and  very  unworkable  mixture,  in  order  to  place 
concrete  in  reinforced  members,  more  water  must  be  added  to  give  I 
the  concrete  the  requisite  workability  so  that  it  may  be  worked 
around  the  reinforcement  and  into  every  part  of  the  forms.  The 


68 

additional  water  brings  with  it  a decrease  in  the  strength  of 
the  concrete.  This  decrease  in  strength  has  long  been  an  ob- 
served fact,  but  the  amount  and  cause  of  the  decrease  is  still 
a much  debated  question.  The  addition  of  water  to  a mix  does 
not  change  the  materials  in  a unit  volume  of  concrete  very 
much.  In  sand  No,  3£  for  c = .10  and  b = .30,  the  addition  of 
EO  per  cent  more  water  changed  the  density  of  the  concrete  from 
,75E  to. 743,  while  the  average  strength  of  the  second  concrete 
was  only  87  per  cent  of  the  first.  For  c = .10  and  b = .50, 
fusing  the  same  sand)  the  density  changed  from  .814  to  .810 
with  the  addition  of  20  per  cent  more  water,  and  the  strength 
of  the  second  was  64  per  cent  of  the  first,  in  sand  No.  31  for 
c = .10  and  b = .30  the  addition  of  20  per  cent  more  water  chang- 
ed the  density  from  ,792  to  .775,  while  the  strength  of  the 
second  was  63.7  per  cent  of  the  first.  For  c = .10  and  b = ,50 
and  the  same  sand,  the  density  changed  from  ,854  to  .826,  and  the 
strength  of  the  second  was  65.4  per  cent  of  the  first.  The 
variation  in  strength  with  the  addition  of  water  does  not  follow 
any  simple  law.  Neither  do  different  sands  act  the  same. 

Several  functions  have  been  plotted  to  show  the  relation 
between  the  function  and  the  strength  of  the  concrete.  The 
best  two  are  the  cement-space  ratio  and  the  'mtex  cement  ratio. 
The  cement-space  ratio  equals  the  absolute  volume  of  the  cement 
divided  by  the  sum  of  the  voids  and  the  absolute  volume  of  the 
cement.  The  average  result  of  each  set  of  test  specimens  has 
been  plotted  with  both  of  these  functions. 


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For  the  specimens  having  water  contents  near  the  basic 
water  content  the  resulting  points  fit  both  curves  well.  Ap- 
parently they  come  a little  closer  to  the  water-cement  ratio 
curve  but  this  is  due  more  to  the  shape  of  the  curve  and  the 
scale  to  which  it  is  plotted.  In  using  the  curves  to  design 
mixes  this  apparent  advantage  would  become  a disadvantage  be- 
cause the  strength  could  not  be  predetermined  as  accurately 
as  the  curve  indicates. 

In  the  wet  mixes  the  points  do  not  follow  the  cement-space 
ratio  curve  so  closely.  This  happens  especially  with  rich 
mixes  and  large  values  of  b . The  rich  mixes  with  large  values 
of  b have  the  greater  strength  and  therefore  the  points  come 
where  the  curve  is  steepest. 

7/hen  a concrete  is  made  with  a small  amount  of  water,  there 
must  be  a film  of  water  around  the  particles  which  probably 
acts  as  a lubricant  in  mixing  and  placing  concrete.  V/hen  the 
concrete  is  placed  and  begins  to  set,  some  of  this  water  must 
be  taken  up  in  the  hydration  of  the  cement  and  in  the  absorption 
by  the  aggregate,  the  latter  bringing  the  cement  and  aggregate 
into  closer  contact,  thus  probably  helping  the  adhesive  action. 

It  may  be  that  the  particles  of  cement  swell  somev/hat  in  setting 
and  thus  help  to  bring  this  about.  Concrete  generally  shrinks 
somewhat  in  setting  and  it  may  be  that  this  action  is  enough 
to  bring  the  particles  into  very  close  contact. 

'Hith  concrete  made  with  a high  water-content  ratio,  there 
must  be  more  water  in  the  mix  than  can  be  taken  care  of  by 
absorption  and  hydration  of  cement.  There  is  more  shrinkage 
in  the  wet  mix,  but  even  after  tiis  shrinkage  has  taken  place 


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70 

the  mix  is  still  very  wet.  A film  of  water  must  remain  around 
the  particle  for  some  time  which  prohibits  a close  contact  be- 
tween the  aggregate  particles  and  cement  particles.  It  may  be 
that  the  basic  water  content  as  used  is  a little  wetter  than 
is  the  practice  for  normal  consistency  in  some  laboratories. 

The  water-cement  ratio  relation  seems  to  fit  the  wet  mixes 
very  well.  The  points  come  in  a very  close  band  bordering  the 
curve.  The  place  in  which  the  points  fit  this  curve  better  than 
the  cement-space  ratio  curve  is  on  a steep  part  of  the  curve. 

This  partly  explains  why  the  values  fit  the  curve  better.  Even 
here  the  wet  mixes  are  in  close  agreement  with  the  curve  for  dry 
mixes. 

On  comparing  this  curve  for  the  water-cement  ratio  with  the 
curve  given  in  Bulletin  1 of  Lewis  Institute,  it  is  seen  that  the 
curve  given  here  is  much  lower.  This  seems  to  indicate  that 
possibly  the  same  function  of  water-cement  ratio  will  not  apply  1d 
all  tests.  The  cement-space  ratio  curve  given  is  one  that  was 
chosen  to  fit  the  results  of  other  tests.  It  does  not  exactly 
fit  the  results  in  this  thesis  but  the  disagreement  is  small. 

It  may  be  found  desirable  to  change  the  constants  in  one  or 
both  of  the  equations  for  the  two  curves.  The  results  with  the 
artificially  graded  sands  seem  to  be  a little  low  throughout 
the  whole  range.  This  sand  had  considerable  fine  material  in  it. 
In  order  to  get  enough  of  the  fine  material  the  larger  sizes  were 
ground  in  a ball  mill.  The  ground  material  was  then  screened  to 
get  the  desired  sizes  of  small  particles.  This  sand  may  have 
been  weakened  by  the  grinding. 


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71 

18.  Method  £f  Design. - The  method  used  in  ddsigning  the  test 


specimens  gave  satisfactory  results.  The  mix  was  not  intended  to 
give  any  particular  strength.  The  quantities  were  calculated  so 
as  to  give  a known  volume  of  concrete  at  basic  water  content 
only,  por  mixes  with  higher  v/ater  contents  the  same  quantities 
of  materials  v/ere  used  as  in  the  basic  water  content  mix  except 
that  the  water  was  increased  by  a certain  per  cent  of  that  used 
before.  This  decreased  the  amount  of  materials  (including  the 
cement)  in  a unit  volume  of  concrete  somewhat, due  to  the  bulking 
with  the  increased  water  used.  The  method  could  have  been  used 
to  determine  the  necessary  amount  of  materials  to  give  a certain 
volume  of  concrete  at  the  higher  water-content  ratio.  For  the 
same  cem*ent~e  ntenb,  the  amount  of  fine  or  coarse  aggregate  per 
unit  volume  of  concrete  would  have  been  changed  from  that  used 
at  basic  water  content,  por  this  set  of  tests  there  seemed  to 
be  no  especial  advantage  in  keeping  the  volume  of  concrete  the 
same . 

For  the  specimens  intended  to  have  basic  water  content,  the 
variation  of  the  water  content  from  the  value  desired  was  greater 
than  the  variation  in  the  quantities  of  the  other  in^’redients . 

The  value  for  the  basic  water  content  was  obtained  from  the 
mortar  tests.  The  mortar  test  of  the  concretes,  which  are  re- 
ported in  this  thesis,  were  made  among  the  first  mortar  tests. 

The  increments  of  water  used  did  notiocate  the  basic  water  content 
accurately,  in  the  last  mortar  tests  this  trouble  was  eliminated. 
The  voids  in  the  mortar  seemed  to  be  much  easier  to  determine  th  n 
the  basin  water  content. 

Using  either  the  cernent-spaee  ratio  relation  or  the  water- 


72 


cement  ratio  relation  this  method  could  he  used  to  design  mixes 
of  predetermined  strength. 


73 

Conclusions* - From  the  study  of  these  tests  the  following 
conclusions  seem  to  he  justifiable  . 

1.  yy.ater  Content . - Different  sands  require  different 
amounts  of  water  at  basic  water  content  but  this  amount  does 
not  vary  so  much  as  the  voids  in  the  sand  vary.  The  sands 
which  require  more  water  generally  give  lower  strength  but  this  is 
probably  due  to  the  voids  in  the  sand  rather  than  to  the  amount 
of  water  used.  This  variation  in  amount  of  water  is  not  large 
in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Consistency  of  mix.-  The  concrete  falls  off  in  strength 
with  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  water  used.  The  amount  of  this 
decrease  is  best  measured  by  the  cement-space  ratio  function  up 
to  a water  content  ratio  of  1.4.  This  function  also  agrees  with 
other  tests.  The  water-cement  ratio  function  also  shows  up  well 
especially  with  the  wet  mixes.  It  is  not  certain  that  tie  relation 
obtained  with  this  function  as  shown  in  the  plotted  results  will 
agree  with  other  tests,  ^yith  a given  sand  it  can  be  used  to  pre- 
determine the  strength  of  wet  mixes. 

3.  Method  of  Design. - The  method  of  design  used  gives  a 
satisfactory  method  of  predetermining  the  amount  of  materials 
in  a concrete  mix.  The  same  method  could  be  used  to  design 
mixes  of  predetermined  strength.  It  is  especially  useful  in 
estimating  the  probable  strengths  of  concretes  made  with  different 
sands,  in  the  absence  of  compression  tests. 


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150 


General  View  of  Apparatus 


151 


Jip^pratus  Used  in  Mortar  Tests 


152 


iipparatus  Used  for  Specific  Gravity  and  iibsorption  Tests 


153 


Apparatus  for  S eve  Analyses 


I 


General  View  of  Testing  Jipparrtus 


155 


Cylinders  in  Damp  Room  - Spray  Off 


156 


View  of  a Mix  at  Basic  Water  Content  on  the  plow  Table 


15S 


163 


164 


165 


167 


169 


